Epochs of the Universe

This is your mission 07 of the epochs of the Universe. The Era of Atoms forms photons that now produce light. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Era of Atoms, then this article is for you. Let’s get started! Mission 07 of the Epochs of the Universe – Era of Atoms You are now moving to the next epoch, Mission 07, Era of Atoms.  As the Universe continues to expand, we have seen the developments that have occurred until this point.  In the previous epoch, the Era of Nuclei, the Universe is filled with fully ionized particles, free electrons, and photons.  Now in this epoch, we see what happens to the particles as they form neutral atoms. Let’s dive right in and learn more about the Era of Atoms. Mission Timeline – Era of Atoms Mission Map – Era of Atoms Mission Data – Era of Atoms Current Epoch: Era of Atoms Age of the Universe: Between 300,000 years and 1 billion years. Size of the Universe: It has expanded by a factor of more than 1000. Current Temperature: Between 3000 Kelvins and 60 Kelvins. Mission Briefing – Era of Atoms The Era of Atoms happens after the Era of Nuclei. This is when free electrons bind with the nuclei to form neutral atoms between 300,000 and 1 billion years.  The photons (light particles) were not affected anymore by matter after the atom formation. Therefore, the Universe is comprised of neutral atoms and photons that now produce light. Is light visible in this epoch? What caused the atomic nuclei to combine with the free electrons?  How was the cosmic microwave background formed? We will answer these questions in more detail below. What Do You See? The Universe has evolved through time, and we have seen developments in each epoch. It has expanded from a tiny single point to a massive space filled with particles. However, it has been expanding at a slower rate after the Inflationary Epoch.  In this era, the size of the Universe has increased by a factor of more than 1000. Compared to its size in the Era of Nuclei, it has grown bigger. In reference to the mission data, you can see that as the Universe is expanding, it is getting older. The timeline of the Era of Atoms is between 500,000 years to 1 billion years after the Big Bang.  Within this timeline, the fully ionized particles combined with the free electrons; and the photons with specific line energies were absorbed by matter.  In this epoch, two events occurred: Recombination: When the fully ionized particles combine with the free electrons to form the first neutral atoms. Photon decoupling refers to photons releasing as newly formed atoms settle into a stable energy state. The photons that were in the same energy line as the first neutral atoms are absorbed into matter. After recombination, the photons are released, and radiation is no longer trapped. Photons are now free to produce light.  Matter does not affect the photons anymore; matter now becomes transparent to visible light for the first time. Although, of course, photons have been producing light in the previous epochs. Still, it was impossible to see the light, nor can it be observed by us through telescopes.  The photons could not travel anywhere since the free electrons were absorbing them. Finally, we can see that visible light now exists in the Universe. Thus, the first visible light has been produced. As the Universe cooled, the free electrons combined with the atomic nuclei to form neutral atoms. The first neutral atoms were the hydrogen atom and helium atom.  What Do You Feel? Between 500,000 years to 1 billion years, the Universe’s temperature was low enough for free electrons to combine with the nuclei to form neutral atoms. In this epoch, the temperature of the Universe was between 3000 Kelvins and 60 Kelvins.  The drop in temperature caused the photons and matter to decouple, making the Universe transparent. The Era of Atoms produced light, neutral atoms. The temperature of the Universe at this time could only allow for the formation of light elements.  The temperature was a bit high for heavier elements to form. The heavier elements are produced during the formation of stars and galaxies, which is the next epoch. After recombination and photon decoupling, matter was free to cool below the temperatures of the photon particles.  The photon field no longer changed its properties, like its temperature, through interactions with free electrons.  The photon field is what we now see as the residue of the Big Bang. The photon field is the radiation discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1964 called the cosmic microwave background (CMB).  The CMB shows the furthest point back in time that we can observe. This means that we understand the Universe at least 500,000 years after the Big Bang, which is when the cosmic microwave background is discovered.  Since the birth of the Universe, radiation has redshifted by a factor of 1000 from 3000 Kelvins to 3 Kelvins and is the same in all directions.  The 3000 Kelvins photons from the end of the Era of the Nuclei have cooled since 500,000 years after the Big Bang to 3 Kelvins. What is Happening? Scientific Explanation Here’s the scientific explanation of what’s happening in the Era of Atoms. Appearance Two events occur in this epoch: photon decoupling and recombination. In recombination, the nuclei combine with the free electrons to form neutral atoms.  The word recombination is a misnomer because the nuclei and free electrons combined at no point in the previous epochs. In photon decoupling, the photons are released from matter as the neutral atoms settle into a stable energy state. After photon decoupling, the photons were now free to move around through space and produce light. Thus, for the first time, the Universe became transparent to visible light.  Light existed in the previous epoch, but it could not be seen or observed through a telescope since free electrons were …

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This is your mission 06 of the epochs of the Universe. The Era of Nuclei ends the fusion of nuclei. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Era of Nuclei, then this article is for you. Let’s get started! Mission 06 of the Epochs of the Universe – Era of Nuclei Now on the sixth epoch, in the Era of Nuclei, we see what happens after forming the nuclei in the Era of Nucleosynthesis.  The Universe is now taking shape, from the formation of particles to nuclei.  Although nothing much happens during this epoch, let’s jump right in and explore this era to understand how what happened helped set the stage for the much bigger changes in the epochs that follow. Mission Timeline – Era of Nuclei Mission Map – Era of Nuclei Mission Data – Era of Nuclei Current Epoch: Era of Nuclei. Age of the Universe: Between 3 minutes and 500,000 years. Size of the Universe: It expanded by a factor of 1,000. Current Temperature: Between 10^9 Kelvins and 3000 Kelvins. Mission Briefing – Era of Nuclei After the Era of Nucleosynthesis, you now enter the Era of Nuclei.  In this epoch, we see what happens to the nuclei after their formation in the Era of Nucleosynthesis.  All the particles in the Universe are in the form of atomic nuclei, such as hydrogen nuclei, helium nuclei, and trace amounts of lithium and deuterium nuclei.  The Universe comprises fully ionized particles in matter, which is generally a ball of hot plasma. Why are the electrons and nuclei separate? What is the state of the Universe in this epoch? Is light created in this era? Let’s answer these questions as we get into more detail about the Era of Nuclei. What Do You See? In this epoch, we don’t see much change compared to the Era of Nucleosynthesis. It is almost similar to the previous epoch.  The only different thing is the fusion of nuclei has ended in this epoch. The Universe is expanding, but at a slower rate; hence its size is increasing. The size of the Universe has increased by a factor of 1,000 compared to its size in the previous epoch. It is a massive space filled with fully ionized particles. According to the mission data, you can see that the Universe becomes older as it expands.  The timeline of the Era of Nuclei is between 3 minutes and 500,000 years after the Big Bang. Within this long period, nothing much happened.  The fusion of the nuclei has stopped. All the while, the Universe remains just a ball of hot plasma filled with fully ionized particles, i.e., hydrogen nuclei, helium nuclei, and trace amounts of lithium and deuterium.  Three minutes after the Big Bang, the nuclei fusion ended, and no more atomic nuclei were formed.  The nuclei fusion could not continue because the temperature became too low. Nevertheless, the temperature remained high enough to keep all the atoms ionized; keep all the electrons from binding with the nuclei until around 500,000 years.  Photons (particles that produce light) were also scattered in the Universe together with the electrons, but they could not react with each other because they were locked into an equilibrium in which the photons could not escape.  The Era of Nuclei created a lot of light, but it could not be seen anywhere. The Universe’s density was so high that photons would hit the nuclei or an electron before getting anywhere, causing the Universe not to have light. The Universe became opaque to light.  The timeline of the Era of Nuclei is between 3 minutes and 500,000 years. In this long period, the nuclei fusion ended because the temperature dropped, making the Universe cool enough for the nuclei fusion to not continue. As you continue to the next epoch, you will see what happens to the atomic nuclei, electrons,  and photons. What Do You Feel? In the Era of Nuclei, between 3 minutes and 500,000 years, the Universe’s temperature dipped, causing fusion to stop.  The nuclei formation ended, leaving the Universe with ionized atoms. During this epoch, the temperature of the Universe is between 10^9 Kelvins and 3000 Kelvins.  The temperatures are too high for the nuclei and electrons to combine to form an atom. We will see this in the following epochs.  As the Universe was expanding, its density also decreased. However, the density was still too high that photons would hit an electron or the nuclei before getting anywhere.  The photons were trapped amid a hot ball of plasma of positively charged nuclei and negatively charged nuclei.  Since photons and electrons are scattered in the Universe, free electrons can absorb the photons of any energy making the Universe opaque to light.  This means that the photons could produce light, but the light could not get anywhere because the electrons were absorbing the photons. So, there was still no light during the Era of Nuclei.  The pressure of the Universe continuously decreases as the Universe expands. Pressure is indirectly proportional to volume. So as the volume of the Universe increases, its pressure decreases.  What Is Really Happening? Scientific Explanation Here is some scientific background on the Era of the Nuclei. Appearance In terms of the Universe’s appearance, the difference is not that big when compared to the Era of Nucleosynthesis.  In this epoch, the nuclei fusion stops because the temperature became too low for the process to continue. At this point, the Universe is a ball of hot plasma that contains fully ionized particles, free electrons, and photons.  In the Era of the Nuclei, photons (light particles) created a lot of light, but they could not get anywhere. This is because photons of any energy can be absorbed by free electrons making the Universe opaque to light.  The free electrons absorb all the photons in the Universe. Also, the density of the Universe was so high that photons would hit an electron or the nuclei before it could travel anywhere. The size of …

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This is your mission 05 of the epochs of the Universe. The Era of Nucleosynthesis is where the fusion of protons and neutrons occurred and formed the first nuclei. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Era of Nucleosynthesis, then this article is for you. Let’s get started! Mission 05 of the Epochs of the Universe – Era of Nucleosynthesis You are now in the fifth epoch of the Universe. As you continue advancing through the epochs, things now start to come together and make sense.  You have explored all the stages of the Universe’s evolution from the beginning until now. In each era, you see some development. Now let’s jump right in and explore the Era of Nucleosynthesis. Mission Timeline – Era of Nucleosynthesis Mission Map – Era of Nucleosynthesis Mission Data – Era of Nucleosynthesis Current Epoch: Era of Nucleosynthesis. Age of the Universe: Between 0.001 seconds and 3 minutes. Size of the Universe: Around 300 light-years in radius. Current Temperature: Between 10^9 Kelvins and 3000 Kelvins. Mission Briefing – Era of Nucleosynthesis The Era of Nucleosynthesis is where the fusion of protons and neutrons occurred and formed the first nuclei. It happens immediately after the Particle Era, between 1 millisecond and three minutes after the Big Bang. In this epoch, we will see how the atomic nuclei for light elements are formed and even underwent fusion to form the heavier nuclei, such as the helium nuclei. What were the first atomic nuclei to be formed? What was the percentage of each element nuclei in the Universe during this epoch? What was the ratio of hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei in this era? Let’s explore the answers to these questions and much more. What Do You See? As we saw in the previous epoch, the Universe is expanding, but slower than during the Inflationary Period.  The size of the Universe has increased to about 300 light-years in radius.  A light-year is defined as the distance that light travels in one Julian year.  One light-year is about 6 trillion miles (9 trillion km). So it might be hard to fathom that this is the same Universe that was a tiny singularity in the first epoch, the Big Bang.  The Universe is now a vast space filled with a “soup of particles.”  As stated in the Mission Data, you can see that the Universe is getting older as it expands.  The Era of Nucleosynthesis happens between 0.001 seconds and 3 minutes after the Big Bang.  Within this timeline, the fusion of the protons and neutrons continued and combined into the first atomic nuclei, the hydrogen nuclei.  A nucleus is defined as a positively charged central core of an atom that comprises protons and neutrons.  Some of the protons and neutrons fused further to form the helium and lithium nuclei.  The fusion did not last for long because the Universe was so dense that the fused nuclei broke apart again after they formed.  The fusion and breaking apart of the nuclei continued until three minutes after the Big Bang, when the Universe was now cool enough. In terms of the mass of the nuclei, different masses of the nuclei elements are formed.  In this era, 75% of the matter was hydrogen nuclei, 25% helium nuclei, and trace amounts of lithium and deuterium nuclei. The current abundance of light elements in the Universe reflects what occurred during the Era of Nucleosynthesis.  With the fusion and breaking of particles to form the nuclei, the Era of Nucleosynthesis ended with a primordial mix of hydrogen, helium, and small traces of lithium and deuterium nuclei that later proceeded into the making of the first stars. These were the first nuclei to be formed in the Universe. We see how the nuclei will bind with other particles in the subsequent epochs to form atoms and even later galaxies and stars. What Do You Feel? Between 0.001 seconds and 3 minutes after the Big Bang, the temperature and pressure of the Universe allowed the nuclei fusion to happen, giving rise to nuclei of the first atomic elements.  The temperature was between 10^9 Kelvins and 3000 Kelvins. Towards the end of the Era of Nucleosynthesis, both the Universe cooled, and the density dropped enough that the nuclear fusion ended.  The Era of Nucleosynthesis produced very few elements heavier than lithium due to the lack of a bottleneck.  A bottleneck in this context is the absence of a stable nucleus with 8 or 5 nucleons. Thus, the absence of larger stable atoms limited the amounts of lithium-7 produced during the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.  So far, the only stable nuclei proven experimentally to have been made before or during the Era of Nucleosynthesis are helium-3, helium-4, lithium-7, deuterium, and protium. This epoch begins after matter (particles) has annihilated all the remaining anti-matter (anti-particles). Thus, all the matter is “frozen out,” meaning that matter is no longer spontaneously generated to or from the photons.  From the simple thermodynamics’ arguments, you can calculate the ratio of protons to neutrons during fusion depending on the Universe’s temperature during this era.  The fraction of the protons is higher than that of the neutrons because the higher mass of neutrons gives rise to premature decay of neutrons to protons with a half-life of around 15 minutes.  Half-life is the time interval required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay. What is Happening? Scientific Explanation Here is some scientific background on the Era of Nucleosynthesis. Appearance In this epoch, we see how the particles fuse to form the nuclei. At this point, the protons and the neutrons combine into the first atomic nuclei, hydrogen.  Some particles fused further into helium and lithium nuclei. However, the Universe was so dense that the nuclei split apart again as soon as they formed.  So as new ones were forming, others were breaking apart. The fusion and the breakup continued as the temperature dropped. Finally, when the Universe was cool enough, the fusion …

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This is your mission 04 of the epochs of the Universe. The Particle Era is the beginning of the particle soup filling the Universe. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Particle Era, then this article is for you. Let’s get started! Mission 04 of the Epochs of the Universe – Particle Era Now at this stage, the fifth epoch, the Universe is taking shape after the electroweak symmetry breaking.  In this epoch, particles begin to form, and now a “particle soup” fills the Universe.  In the previous epochs, matter did not exist because particles could not form and bind due to extreme conditions.  In this epoch, we get to learn about the formation of particles. Mission Timeline – Particle Era Mission Map – Particle Era Mission Data – Particle Era Current Epoch: Particle Era. Age of the Universe: Between 10^-12 and 10 seconds. Size of the Universe: Slightly bigger than the size of a grapefruit. The Universe is expanding but at a slower rate. Current Temperature:  Between 10^15 Kelvins and 10^9 Kelvins. Mission Briefing – Particle Era This epoch occurs after the Electroweak Era, where the expansion of the Universe happens.  Now in the Particle Era, we see how particles are being formed and annihilated.  A few epochs were included in the Particle Era:  Quark Epoch  Hadron Epoch Lepton Epoch In this era, the two particle families form: Hadrons Leptons  Different types of particles are created on different timelines until the nucleosynthesis process happens. Some of them decay in the process. What particles were formed in this era? What is causing the particles to form? Why do some particles annihilate? We will answer these questions as we get into more detail. What Do You See? In this epoch, we see more changes compared to the previous one, Electroweak Era.  Not only has the Universe expanded, but now particles have also begun forming.  The first particles started to form immediately after the electroweak symmetry breaking.  In the Quark Epoch, between 10^-12 seconds and 10^-5 seconds, the Universe is filled with dense, quark-gluon plasma containing quarks, leptons, and anti-particles.  A quark is a tiny elementary particle that makes up protons and neutrons. The particles collided, allowing quarks to combine to form mesons and baryons.  Mesons are made of one quark and one anti-quark. Baryons are subatomic particles like protons and neutrons and are composed of three quarks.  Now in the Hadron Epoch, the Universe cooled until hadrons could form.  A hadron particle is a composite particle that is made of two or more quarks.  As the temperature dropped, hadron and anti-hadron pairs were no longer created.  Most of the newly formed hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilated each other resulting in the formation of high-energy photons.  A small number of hadrons remained in the Universe at around one second after the Big Bang. In the Lepton Epoch, we now see leptons and antileptons in the Universe.  A lepton is an elementary, subatomic particle that only responds to electromagnetic force, weak force, and gravity. They are different from quarks.  Ten seconds after the Big Bang, the Universe’s temperature drops to an extent lepton, and antilepton pairs don’t form.  The leptons and antileptons that remained annihilated each other, resulting in high-energy particles forming like in the Hadron Epoch. So now particles have been formed, but atoms have not been created yet, so light still does not exist.  Galaxies and stars also don’t exist yet.  The temperatures are still too high for the particles to bind. What Do You Feel? Various particles are formed in the Particle Era; some are due to the interactions between other particles. At first, the Universe’s temperature was too high for particles to form.  Now, as the Universe expanded, the temperature continued to drop, allowing the formation of particles.  The temperature of the Universe during the Quark Epoch is between 10^15 Kelvins to 10^12 Kelvins. This was still too high for quarks to combine.  Also, during this epoch, the Universe was filled with dense, hot quark-gluon plasma. In the Hadron Epoch, the temperature continues to drop and is between 10^12 Kelvins and 10^10 Kelvins.  The dense, hot quark-gluon plasma cools until hadrons can form. As the temperature continues to fall further, the newly formed hadrons destroy each other without being replaced, giving rise to high-energy photons. The last epoch in this era is the Lepton Epoch.  The path of this epoch is like that of the Hadron Epoch.  During this epoch, most matter in the Universe is made up of leptons and their anti-particles.  High-energy photons are also produced due to the destruction of leptons and antileptons caused by a temperature drop. The temperature is between 10^10 Kelvins and 10^9 Kelvins.  The destruction of the leptons and antileptons led to a relatively small surplus of leptons to occupy the future Universe. What is Happening? Scientific Explanation Here’s the scientific explanation: Appearance In terms of appearance, there is some development in the Universe.  The most profound development in this era is the formation of particles. It consists of the formation of two particle families:  Hadrons Leptons Hadrons later form two more families:  Baryons  Mesons Baryons are the normal, stable everyday matter comprising three quarks, and mesons are short-lived, unstable particles made up of one quark and one anti-quark.  The mesons annihilated each other, leaving protons and neutrons to make up the nucleus of future atoms. Leptons formed after the hadrons, and they consist of:  Electrons Neutrinos Muons Taus  Muons and taus are unstable particles, and they decay very quickly. Muons are associated with the electron, while taus are associated with the neutrino.  The leptons followed the same path as that of the hadrons.  The leptons and antileptons annihilated each other to produce high-energy photons, leaving a small surplus of leptons in the Universe. The size of the Universe was increasing very slowly because the Universe was expanding at a much slower rate compared to the Inflationary Epoch.  So, its size can be described as slightly larger than a grapefruit.  Galaxies, stars, and light have …

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This is your mission 03 of the epochs of the Universe. The Electroweak Era forms the first particles that would give way to matter.  So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Electroweak Era, then this article is for you. Let’s get started! Mission 03 of the Epochs of the Universe – Electroweak Era You are now embarking on the fourth epoch of the Universe.  As you continue to advance through the epochs, it is starting to make sense how a tiny singularity could expand rapidly into the present Universe.  In this epoch, we will see how the Universe rapidly expanded and what caused this rapid expansion.  Let’s delve into this epoch and learn more. Mission Timeline – Electroweak Era Mission Map – Electroweak Era Mission Data – Electroweak Era Current Epoch: The Electroweak Era. Age of the Universe: Between 10^-36 seconds and 10^-12 seconds. Size of the Universe: It expanded by a factor of the order 10^26, almost the size of a grapefruit. Current Temperature: Between 10^28 Kelvins and 10^15 Kelvins. Mission Briefing – Electroweak Era After the Grand Unified Theory Era, you reach the Electroweak Era.  In this epoch, we see how cosmic inflation occurs and the formation of the first particles that would give way to matter.  There is a slight overlap between the Inflationary Epoch and the Electroweak Epoch because the Inflationary Epoch occurs inside the Electroweak Era. What is the size of the Universe after inflation? What were the first particles to be formed? What led to the formation of the exotic particles? Let’s move on to answer these questions and find out more about the Electroweak Era. What Do You See? Many developments occurred compared to the previous epoch, the Grand Unified Theory Era, visible to the naked eye.  In the previous epochs, the size of the Universe was very tiny. Still, in the Electroweak Era, cosmic inflation has occurred, and the size of the Universe increased rapidly.  It expanded by a factor of the order 10^26, resulting in a universe that grew from the size of a single proton to around 10 cm (4 inches) across, almost the size of a grapefruit. Referencing the mission data, you can see that the Universe becomes older as it grows.  The Electroweak Era happens between 10^-36 seconds and 10^-12 seconds.  Within this timeline, the Inflationary Epoch also occurs. The Inflationary Epoch takes place between 10^-36 seconds and 10^-32 seconds.  Some astronomers and cosmologists place the Electroweak Era at the start of the cosmic inflation, around 10^-36 seconds after the Big Bang, while others place it 10^-32 seconds after the Big Bang.  We see many exotic particles forming during this epoch, such as the W and Z bosons and the Higgs bosons.  These particles were formed as a result of high-energy particle interactions, at the end of this epoch, when the Universe was 10^-12 seconds, the W and Z bosons decay. Atoms and molecules are not formed in this epoch. Even after the Universe’s rapid expansion, the Universe’s temperature is still too high to allow the stable formation of many particles we see in today’s Universe.  So, there are no atoms and molecules to form matter, and therefore galaxies and stars have not formed yet. Still, the Universe is in total darkness in this epoch. Light has not formed yet because of the reason stated above. Particles and molecules cannot bind because of high temperatures.  At least you now get to see some change in this epoch. What Do You Feel? Now let’s see what you feel about the rapid expansion of the Universe. The Electroweak Era begins when the strong force separates from the electroweak force because the Universe’s temperature was low enough (10^28 K).  This separation resulted in a scalar field called the inflation field that generated enormous potential energy to trigger the Universe’s rapid expansion.  The rapid expansion of space meant that the elementary particles from the Grand Unified Theory Era were sparsely distributed across the Universe.  Inflation ended when the inflation field decayed into other particles known as reheating. After the Inflation Period ended, the Universe continued to expand, but at a much slower rate. As the temperature continued to fall, the electroweak symmetry breaking happened, which resulted in some side effects.  After the electroweak symmetry breaking, the fundamental forces have taken their current form. The elementary particles have their projected masses. The temperature continues to fall as the Universe expands. During this epoch, the temperature is between 10^28 Kelvins and 10^15 Kelvins.  In the Inflationary Period, it falls from 10^28 Kelvins to 10^22 Kelvins. Then after that, it drops gradually until 10^15 Kelvins. Also, the Universe is now less dense after inflation because the volume has increased. What is Happening? Scientific Explanation Now we get to learn about the scientific background for this epoch. Appearance There’s a change in the appearance of the Universe during the Electroweak Era.  The rapid change in size is so apparent; you can’t miss it. During the Inflationary Period, the volume of the Universe increased by a factor of 10^26, resulting in an enormous universe.  A universe that you can easily observe, unlike in the previous epochs where it was very small.  This epoch began when the Universe’s temperature had fallen enough to separate the strong force from the electroweak force. The separation triggered the inflation of the Universe.  Do you wonder how? Well, during this phase transition, the inflation field is created, and it settles on its lowest energy state. As a result, an enormous force was generated that led to the rapid expansion of the Universe. Ordinary particles from the Grand Unified Theory Era are now sparsely distributed across the Universe, resulting in few interactions.  Particle interactions on this epoch are energetic enough to produce many exotic particles, such as W and Z bosons and the Higgs boson. At the end of this epoch, the W and Z bosons decay. With the expansion of the Universe, all the parameters have changed. The temperature has dropped …

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This is your mission 02 of the epochs of the Universe. The Grand Unified Theory is still part of the Big Bang. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Grand Unified Theory era, then this article is for you. Let’s jump right in! Mission 02 of the Epochs of the Universe – Big Bang Astronomers and cosmologists have divided the development of the Universe into eras.  The Grand Unified Theory Era is the third epoch in the Universe’s evolution, following the Planck Era. It is important to explore what happened in every era because there are big developments during each. So, let’s dive into it and explore more about the Grand Unified Theory Era. Mission Timeline – Grand Unified Theory Era Mission Map – Grand Unified Theory Era Mission Data – Grand Unified Theory Era Current Epoch: The Grand Unified Theory Era Age of the Universe: Between 10^-43 seconds and 10^-35 seconds Size of the Universe: Subatomic Current Temperature: Higher than 10^27 Kelvins Mission Briefing – Grand Unified Theory Era When you’re done exploring the Planck Era, you will reach the Grand Unified Theory Era. It occurs immediately after the Planck Era in a fraction of a second, between 10^-43 seconds and 10^-35 seconds. In this epoch, we learn about the four fundamental forces of the Standard Model, with only three being unified: Strong force Electroweak force Electromagnetic force So what’s the fourth one?  Gravity, but it’s not unified.  Did gravity split off from the other three fundamental interactions? Has matter started forming? Are galaxies and stars formed in this epoch? Let’s get into more detail about what happens in this epoch: What Do You See? This epoch is part of the Big Bang because it occurred in stages. Since it is in the Planck Era, the size of the Universe in this epoch is still subatomic. There is some very slight change, but it is not observable.  You may wonder how this may be because we are now on the third epoch, and you would expect it to have increased in size, but understand that the expansion was gradual.  According to the Mission Data, you can see that the age of the Universe has changed.  The Grand Unified Theory Era occurred in a fraction of a second, between 10-43 seconds and 10-35 seconds. That is a very, very short time. It is difficult to fathom this small fraction of time. Still, in this epoch, light has not been formed. Particles and molecules still cannot bind because of certain conditions like high temperature and high pressure.  The Universe is still utterly dark during this epoch. However, light is formed for the first time in the Universe between 240,000 and 300,000 years after the Big Bang. When you look around, you don’t see galaxies and stars or anything at all. As stated earlier, particles and molecules did not exist because of certain conditions in the Universe:  High temperature  High density The only difference that you can see in this epoch is the difference in age between the Planck Era and the Grand Unified Theory Era. So why are we learning about this epoch anyway? We want to see some physical change as the Universe evolves. What Do You Feel? Now we will learn what happens in the Grand Unified Theory Era. In this epoch, there are four fundamental forces in the Universe, as mentioned previously. The four forces are: Gravity Strong force Weak force Electromagnetic force Gravity then separates from the other three fundamental forces because of temperature transition as the Universe expanded and cooled. This is just the same as water.  The way water turns to steam is the same way the fields that define the fundamental forces change when the temperature reaches a certain point.  Under these conditions of high temperature and density, three of the four fundamental forces—strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces—remain unified; that is, they exist as a single entity. Unfortunately, we don’t get to see this in our present Universe because it only happens at far higher temperatures. These transitions in temperatures in the fundamental forces are caused by a phenomenon of quantum fields called symmetry breaking. In this epoch, the Universe is still almost an invisible point. Well, it is not infinite as it was in the first epoch. It has increased in size, but the change is so tiny that you can barely notice the difference.  The temperature in this epoch is higher than 10^27 Kelvins. It is lower than the Planck Era because now the Universe has started to cool. Also, the density has changed slightly. As a result, the Universe is less dense than it is in the Planck Era.  Pressure is indirectly proportional to volume, so the pressure inside is very high, with the size of the Universe still being so small. So although it may be lower than it was in the Planck Era, it is still high.  What is Happening? Scientific Explanation There is some scientific explanation in this epoch concerning the fundamental forces.  Appearance Just as in the Planck Era, the size of the Universe is still nearly invisible. It is so microscopic that you cannot see it with the naked eye.  This epoch began with all the fundamental forces being unified. Then gravity splits off from the other three fundamental forces.  At the end of this era, the Grand Unified Theory predicts that the Universe cooled to the extent that the strong force separated from the fundamental forces resulting in the release of a tremendous amount of energy that led to the Universe’s rapid expansion.  After 10^36 seconds, the Universe might have grown from a subatomic size to the size of the solar system.  We will discuss more the rapid change in size in the next epoch. Because the Universe is packed into a small space, temperature, density, and pressure are very high.  The temperature being 10^27 Kelvins. Particles and molecules cannot bind in such conditions. Galaxies, stars, and planets do not exist yet in …

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This is your mission 01 of the epochs of the Universe. The Plank Era happened right after the Big Bang. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Plank Era, then you’re in the right place. Let’s get right into it! Mission 01 of the Epochs of the Universe – Planck Era You are embarking on a journey through space and time itself.  Back through time, you traverse the eras of the Universe, closer and closer to the beginning of everything.  Your voyage explores all stages, or epochs of the Universe, from the start until this moment. Plus, you have the only CosmoControl, to rewind, fast-forward, pause or resume space and time. Let’s jump right in! Mission Timeline – Planck Era Mission Map – Planck Era Mission Data – Planck Era Current Epoch: Planck Era Age of the Universe: Less than one quattuordecillionth of a second (< 10^43) Size of the Universe: Subatomic Current Temperature: 18 decillion degrees Fahrenheit Mission Briefing – Planck Era After leaving the big bang, the dawn of our Universe, you reach the Planck Era.  Immediately, you press the pause button on your CosmoControl, freezing time at a mere fraction of a second after the big bang.  Has the Universe now grown?  Otherwise, do planets, stars, and other familiar objects now exist?  You begin exploring this new epoch. What Do You See? Now, you have reached the Planck Era.  Although, technically, you are still amidst the big bang itself.  Immediately, you look around. Yet, to your dismay, the Universe appears identical to how it looked during the moment of the big bang.  That is to say, the Universe does not look like anything currently. Everything is still utterly dark. Indeed, your mission data tells you that the Universe has “grown.” Plus, it has also begun “cooling.” Yet, these terms are all but meaningless.  During this epoch, the Universe is still beyond microscopic in size. In fact, the entire Universe is still millions of times smaller than a single atom! You wonder, “how can this possibly be?” Checking the Universe’s ago in your mission data, you realize that the Planck Era occurs only fractions of one second after the Universe was born.  Technically, less than one quattuordecillionth of a second, to be exact.  In other words, a “1,” followed by 45 zeros. Unfortunately, your human mind does not understand this small fraction of time. Still, in its utter infancy, the first light has yet to be created. And, the molecules that make up … everything are not yet able to exist.  Looking around, you see no planets, galaxies, stars, or anything else. The Universe is still a dark nothing. Naturally, you are no stranger to seeing dark skies. While you were camping, traveling the countryside, or simply at your home, the night sky always appeared black.  But, those “black” skies at home were completely polluted with starlight, city lights, and even some light leftover from the Big Bang. No, those skies were far from being black. Now, skies in this Planck Era are sincerely black. They are the kind of darkness that no words can accurately describe.  In fact, the very first single photon of light has not yet existed in the Universe.  Suddenly, you find yourself rather eager to move toward new epochs.  Epochs in which you actually see something! What Do You Feel? Imagine the entire Universe crammed into a sub-molecule-sized speck.  The Universe’s entire mass, squeezed into a nearly invisible dot. In such conditions, temperatures are still unimaginably hot. While no longer infinite, like in your previous epoch, they are quite close.  In fact, temperatures during this Planck Era sit at 18 decillion degrees Fahrenheit.  Essentially, this is the temperature at our Sun’s core, multiplied millions of times.  Basically, your current epoch does not feel much better than the actual Big Bang. Not to mention, you experience almost no change in density either.  Technically, the Universe has increased in size. Yet, this increase is so minuscule that the pressures you experience are no different than before.  Packed into a microscopic size, pressures are cataclysmic. Picture being hundreds of miles under the ocean with no protective equipment.  Now, multiply those pressures trillions of times, and you would begin to feel the Planck Era.  If you could capture a sand-grain-sized piece of the Planck Era, it would weigh trillions of pounds. Therefore, needless to say, the pressure you experience in this epoch is still unbearable. What Is Really Happening? Scientific Explanation Here’s the scientific explanation of what’s happening: Appearance Much like the moment the Big Bang occurred, the size of the Universe is unimaginably small.  In fact, so small that it could not possibly be observed with human eyes.  And, with everything crushed into such small space, temperature, density, pressure, and everything else are all but infinite. Truly, measured by numeric values that humankind can’t compute. Now, such hostile environments mean that literally nothing we know today can exist. Air, elements, water, people, and anything else are not possible during the Planck Era.  Even the basic particles of matter are unable to stick together under such conditions.  Protons, neutrons, and electrons all bounce wildly and freely throughout the tiny Universe. Therefore, without particles binding to form atoms, light itself still does not exist. Indeed, the Universe is still a mere soup of pure energy. Time Firstly, the Planck Era still occurs during the actual big bang itself. Rather, the “Planck Era” defines the Universe prior to being 10-43 in age. This immensely small fragment of time is known as a Planck Unit.  And, in science, this unit is considered the smallest meaningful amount of time. As previously noted, this sliver of time is hard to imagine.  We know seconds, milliseconds, and even shorter time lengths.  However, the Universe is less than one quattuordecillionth of a second old during the Planck Era. This is a “1,” followed by 43 zeros.  To human minds, the big bang and Planck Era would be one event, unable to be mentally deciphered as separate epochs. Unfortunately, current physics and technology do not allow us to observe nor understand such distant periods. Therefore, …

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This is your mission 00 of the epochs of the Universe. Everything started with the Big Bang. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Big Bang, then this article is for you. Let’s jump right in! Mission 00 of the Epochs of the Universe – Big Bang The Big Bang is a theory that explains the birth of the Universe and how all matter found in the Universe formed.  However, theoretically, it does not actually explain the Universe’s birth but rather tries to explain how the Universe was formed from a very tiny, hot, dense state to what it is today. So, let’s learn more about the Big Bang and see how it all began. Mission Timeline – Big Bang Mission Map – Big Bang Mission Data – Big Bang Current Epoch: Big Bang Age of the Universe: It is considered meaningless or unclear whether time existed before the Big Bang Size of the Universe: Infinite, tiny single point Current Temperature: Infinitely high Mission Briefing – Big Bang During the Big Bang, the Universe is in its initial state of high temperatures and high density.  Today, astronomers, cosmologists, and space scientists have concluded that the Universe we know today started with a hot, tiny single point (a singularity).  The single point expanded and exploded, resulting in creating the majority of the matter that currently exists and creating laws of physics that oversee our ever-expanding cosmos. At this point, has this tiny, hot singularity expanded and exploded to form stars and galaxies? Did time, energy, and space exist before the Big Bang? Let’s dig deeper into the details about the Big Bang. What Do You See? The Big Bang has different stages. But, first, let’s talk about the initial phase when the tiny, hot singularity exploded.  After the explosion, the Universe did not expand instantly; instead, it was still very minute. Therefore, we refer to the size of the Universe at this point as “infinitely small.”  From the word Big Bang, you might think it was a massive explosion, but that is not the case. Instead, it was a rapid expansion of matter from a state of extremely high temperature and high density that is now considered the Universe’s origin.  When you check the mission data, you can see that the Universe’s age during the Big Bang was unclear or even nonexistent before Big Bang.  There is no theory to confirm or explain if time existed before the Big Bang. Although the human mind cannot imagine a universe without time, cosmologists and astronomers have not developed possibilities or explanations about this notion. There is also an assumption that the production of light occurred during the Big Bang.  The truth is the Universe was still very dark and opaque until the moment of first light, which was between 240,000 to 300,000 years after the Big Bang, known as the era of recombination. This is because the stars had not formed until the recombination era, so there is no light emitted.  So how did the Universe come to be as it is today? What Do You Feel? You’re probably wondering how the Universe could form from just a very small singularity to what it has expanded to now.  Can you imagine living in a Universe that was such an infinitely small point? The initial state of the Universe before the Big Bang was high temperatures and high density.  As time goes by, the temperature drops gradually as the Universe undergoes a period of accelerated expansion.  In a singularity, the volume of space is zero, or, in other words, the curvature of space-time is infinite.  Cosmologists and astronomers believe that such a singularity only exists at the core of a black hole, which happens when a supermassive sun reaches its end and collapses. The volume of the singularity is infinitesimally small, so you can imagine how the pressure could be catastrophic.  As you know, the relationship between pressure and volume is indirectly proportional. So if the volume is low, then the pressure is very high to the point of being intolerable. What is Really Happening? The Scientific Explanation Let’s look at the scientific explanation for how it all began: Appearance The size of the Universe is infinitesimally small during this epoch. You could not even observe it with your eyes until it started expanding.  This expansion of the Universe is inferred from a combination of theoretical physics and direct astronomical observations.  At this point, all of the parameters—i.e., volume, temperature, density, and pressure—are all infinite.  Nothing can form in such conditions since particles do not even exist to start creating matter. Also, light still does not exist for the same reason. It is also essential to note that space and dimensions did not exist at the time of the Big Bang. Instead, they came into existence when hot, tiny particles expanded.  Contrary to what people believe, the Big Bang was an explosion. There was no pre-existing space for the explosion to happen. The Big Bang refers to the expansion of the Universe. Time Have you ever wondered what happened before the Big Bang?  Well, this can be a very tricky question if you believe that the Big Bang was the birth of the Universe.  So the theories and assumptions about what existed before regarding time are largely speculative because we have no information to base those theories on.  The answer may, however, not be satisfactory to some humans who want a cause-and-effect theory.  The reasoning is that if Big Bang was an event that occurred due to something, then there must have been a before, which no one knows about. The Big Bang Theory can only be explained by using equations rooted in the general theory of relativity, indicating a singularity that existed at the beginning of interstellar time.  In other words, we still have no knowledge on what time scale it happened or what really existed before it.  It is pretty difficult to interpret the difference between the …

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This is your mission 08 of the epochs of the Universe. The Era of Galaxies is the Universe’s present stage. So if you want to travel back in time and experience the Era of Galaxies from its beginnings to the present, then you’re in the right place. Keep reading! Mission 08 of the Epochs of the Universe – Era of Galaxies Finally, you are now on the last epoch, Mission 08, Era of Galaxies.  We have explored all the epochs step-by-step, and now we’ll look at the final epoch. We have seen the Universe evolve from a tiny singularity to a massive universe filled with atoms in the previous epochs.  Now in this final epoch, we will see how the stars and galaxies form.  Let’s explore the Era of Galaxies and see how the Universe got to its present state. Mission Timeline – Era of Galaxies Mission Map – Era of Galaxies Mission Data – Era of Galaxies Current Epoch: Era of Galaxies. Age of the Universe: Between 1 billion years and present day. Size of the Universe: 93 billion light-years in diameter.  Current Temperature: Between 60 Kelvins and 2.73 Kelvins. Mission Briefing – Era of Galaxies This is the final epoch in the epochs of the Universe.  After the Era of Atoms, you reach the Era of Galaxies.  In this epoch, we will look at how the stars and galaxies formed from the atoms.  The Universe has grown from a tiny singularity during the Big Bang to a massive space filled with galaxies and other stellar bodies.   This being the final epoch, we will see how the present Universe came to be. Has the Universe grown?           Have galaxies formed? What era do we live in currently? Do planets and other stellar bodies exist? Let’s explore this final epoch. What Do You See? As we have seen in the previous epoch, the Universe is continuously expanding as time goes by.  The size of the Universe in this epoch is 93 billion light-years in diameter, and it is still expanding.  A light-year is a distance that light travels in one Earth year.  One light-year is equivalent to 6 trillion miles or 9 trillion kilometers.  So, if this is the equivalent of one light-year, and the Universe is 93 billion light-years in diameter, you can imagine how massive the Universe is.  As stated in the mission data, you can see that the Universe is growing older as it expands.  The Era of Galaxies happens between 1 billion years after the Big Bang and the present day.  As you read this article, the Era of Galaxies is continuing.  The galaxy formation process has not stopped.  Our Universe continues to evolve. Within this timeline, the force of gravity caused matter to draw together to form galaxies.  Before galaxies were formed, the Universe went through what is called the Dark Ages. This occurred after neutral atoms were formed until the first stars and galaxies reionize the intergalactic medium entirely.  Reionization is when the first stars and quasars gradually form and emit intense radiation that splits the neutral hydrogen atoms back into a plasma of protons and free electrons for the first time since recombination and photon decoupling.  A quasar is an active galactic object and the brightest object in the Universe.  To ionize the neutral hydrogen, an energy that corresponds to ultraviolet photons was required.  During reionization, matter spread out further due to the ongoing expansion of the Universe.  As the Universe continued to expand, reionization gradually ended, and neutral hydrogen atoms formed again. The atoms formed small lumps of matter (stars) which drew together due to the influence of gravity to form galaxies.  Photographs of such lumps have been taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. These lumps may be the ancestors of modern galaxies.  Due to gravitational attraction, galaxies gradually pull towards each other to form clusters and superclusters.  The Hubble Space Telescope has made observations that small galaxies merge to form bigger galaxies.  What Do You Feel? In this epoch, between 1 billion years after the Big Bang and the present day, the Universe’s temperature cooled down, allowing galaxies to form.  The temperature is between 60 Kelvins and 2.73 Kelvins.  The Era of Galaxies is the epoch we are currently living in. The current temperature of the Universe is 2.73 Kelvins.  The Universe’s density has been decreasing gradually since the Big Bang. Still, the force of gravity began to cause some irregularities in the gas in the Universe.  As the Universe continued to expand, gas pockets became denser, causing the stars to ignite. These stars grouped with each other to form galaxies.  Also, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) density in this epoch has changed compared to the Era of Atoms.  The difference in density in the CMB has created a path for the galaxy formation since density is directly proportional to pressure.  So, the higher the density, the higher the pressure, causing atoms to form stars, which then draw together to form galaxies.  The pull of gravity draws matter together, which leads to stars, which form galaxies.  The stars from this era, known as Population II stars, are formed earlier in this process. The most recent Population I stars formed later.  Population I stars are stars that contain 2% to 3% of metals and are found in the disk of the galaxy.  Population II stars are stars with a poor metallicity of 0.1%. They are found in halos of spiral galaxies and in globular clusters. What is Happening? Scientific Explanation Here is the scientific explanation of what’s happening in the Era of Galaxies. Appearance In this epoch, we see the formation of galaxies.  The gravitational force began causing anomalies in the gas in the Universe.  As the Universe continued to expand, the gas became denser, and stars began igniting. These stars pulled toward each other in groups and formed galaxies.  Also, the density of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) played a role in the formation of galaxies. The difference in density in …

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