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10 Fascinating Facts About Polaris (The North Star)

These are 10 fascinating facts about Polaris, the so-called North Star. From that Polaris won’t be the North Star forever to that it’s 2,500 times brighter than the Sun. So if you want to learn 10 fascinating facts about Polaris, then you’re in the right place. Let’s dig right in! About 10 Polaris Facts Similar to Hollywood, the night sky is loaded with stars. And, some stars are more famous than others. Polaris, known formally as Alpha Ursae Minoris, is possibly the most famous star. Now, you may know this star more commonly as the “north star.” But, you may not know all of the interesting facts this bright hydrogen factory has to offer. #1 Polaris Really Is the North Star Our Earth spins on an axis. And, Earth’s north axis points out, 2.5-quadrillion-miles away to Polaris. Because of this, Polaris always stays fixed directly to the North of our night sky. Actually, Polaris has been our north star, or “pole star,” for thousands of years. #2 Polaris Won’t Always Be the North Star Spin a toy top, and you will notice that it spins in a wobbling cone-like shape. Earth spins in a similar shape along its axis. But, Earth is huge! Due to its massive size, it takes nearly 26,000 years to complete one axis spin. So, Polaris is currently on a 26,000-year reign of the north star title. #3 Winner of Best and Brightest Polaris is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor, Latin for “lesser bear.” You might recognize Ursa Minor more easily as the little dipper. However, the little dipper, while quite recognizable, is not a true constellation. We call these almost-constellations asterisms. #4 The THREE North Stars? Polaris is not simply a single star. Rather, it is a complex system containing three stars. Polaris A (alpha), circled by two smaller, dimmer companions locked in the massive star’s gravity, is the brightest by far. #5 Separated Siblings The Polaris system (mentioned above in #7) contains three stars, Polaris A, Polaris Ab, and Polaris B. Now, when we hear “system,” we naturally think of close-knit objects. However, space is vast. Actually, Polaris A’s closest neighbor, Polaris Ab sits 2-billion-miles away. And, the third star, Polaris B orbits 240-billion-miles away. #6 Wait, the FIVE North Stars!? As mentioned in #7, our north star, Polaris, is actually a three-star system. However, recent observations indicate that two more distant stars may be part of the Polaris system’s gravity. And, if confirmed, we technically have not one but five north stars. #7 Before Google Maps, There Was Polaris Earth’s axis has been pointed directly at Polaris for around 2,000 years. Although only seen from the northern hemisphere, the star has been a universal guide for centuries. Past civilizations have relied on- and survived because of its precise location. Thanks, Polaris! #8 There Is No “South Star” Coincidentally, Earth is currently pointed directly at Polaris. Now, Earth, of course, does have a southern side to its axis. However, there are currently no stars in its crosshairs. But, one star, known as Sigma Octans, lies one degree from such a location. So, it is likely that in the future, a south star will emerge. #9 Far Brighter Than Our Sun Even at a staggering 433 light-years, Polaris shines bright in our sky at magnitude 1.97. Actually, the north star is 2,500 times brighter than our own star, the Sun. If Polaris were our solar system’s star, the radiation and brightness would be so intense that most complex life could not exist. Fortunately, its drastic distance makes it a brilliant compass, not a lethal weapon. #10 The Closest Cepheid Variable to Earth Cepheid variable stars pulsate at fixed rates. And, as they pulsate, their diameter changes, often by millions of miles. And, even at its extreme cosmic distance of 433 light-years, Polaris is currently the closest cepheid variable to Earth. Plus, this star type is commonly used to calculate distances by observing their change in brightness accurately. So once again, Polaris serves as a fantastic space navigator! FAQ – Polaris’ Location as Seen From Earth We’ve received several questions/comments pertaining to Polaris’ location, as seen from Earth. Primarily, people wonder why Polaris is the “North Star,” yet, it tends to appear mid-sky, as opposed to directly above.This is a fantastic question. I, personally, long-pondered the very same thing. You see, Polaris is precisely aligned with the northern point of Earth’s axis. Plus, Earth’s axis is not always directly “north” from where you are. This is very important to keep in mind. From the North Pole, Polaris would appear at a neck-straining 90º, because Earth’s axis points directly above. However, from lower longitudes, like the US, you are at different angles in relation to Earth’s axis. So, Polaris will actually appear at more mid-sky altitudes, usually between 30-40º. When we are not directly aligned from the North Pole, Earth itself obstructs our view of Polaris. As shown in the diagram below, being at latitudes closer to the equator allow more shallow-angled views of the north star. Polaris is over 2.5 quadrillion miles away, so moving mere thousands of miles on Earth should not make a difference, right? But, actually, it makes a tremendous difference. Geometry does not change, nor care where we are. Overall, viewing the north star from lower longitudes will always cause it to appear lower in the sky.

Astronomy

6 Fascinating Facts About the Nucleosynthesis Era

These are 6 fascinating facts about the Nucleosynthesis Era. From 10-billion degrees Fahrenheit to our universe’s first star. If you want to learn 6 fascinating facts about the Era of Nucleosynthesis, this is the article for you. Let’s jump right in! #1 Still Hot, Hot, Hot Currently, the universe continues undergoing rapid “cooling.” However, we quote the term “cooling” because temperatures during the Era of Nucleosynthesis sit at 10-billion degrees Fahrenheit. Actually, compared to the big bang and following epochs, these temps truly are much colder. #2 Electrons Everywhere During the Era of Nucleosynthesis, basic atoms, like hydrogen have formed. In other words, atoms with single-proton nuclei. However, these nuclei are still so hot that electrons are unable to stick to the atoms. Ultimately, the universe has freely-floating electrons, flying aimlessly throughout space. #3 The Whole Universe Is the Sun’s Core During the Era of Nucleosynthesis, the universe was still amazingly hot and dense. In fact, our entire universe acted very similar to stars’ core, like our Sun. Plus, spooky things happen under such tremendous heat and pressure, like atoms smashing together to form different atoms. Actually, we still see this today within our Sun. It’s called nuclear fusion. #4 Nuclear Fusion Powers On Despite the universe cooling dramatically, atoms stay hot. In fact, the nuclei inside of atoms stays hot and pressurized enough for nuclear fusion to carry out. Therefore, hydrogen atoms with a single proton nucleus smash together to form heavier helium. Plus, trace amounts of even heavier elements arise, like lithium. #5 Still No Light… at All During nuclear fusion, photons of intense gamma radiation are generated. In fact, this also happens within the core of our Sun and all stars. Actually, these photons eventually escape the Sun’s core, flying out into space. We call this LIGHT. Except, light photons during the Era of Nucleosynthesis had nowhere to go. No matter which direction they float, only more dense, hot space exists. #6 The Perfect Star Recipe Finally, upon nucleosynthesis, our universe has a composition that resembles modern times. In other words, 75% hydrogen, 25% helium, and less than 1% trace elements, like lithium. Actually, these will eventually become the perfect ingredients to make our universe’s first stars.

Astronomy

10 Fascinating Facts About the Solar System

These are 10 fascinating facts about our solar system. How about that the Sun IS our solar system? So if you want to learn 10 fascinating facts about our solar system, then you’re in the right place. Let’s get started! 10 Solar System Facts Indeed, it’s thrilling to imagine what might exist billions of light-years away in other galaxies. However, to find truly amazing cosmic wonders, you need only look to our own home, the solar system. In fact, we can spot many wonders right in our own backyards through a telescope. Here are 10 solar system facts: #1 You Could Never Stand on Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, or Neptune Firstly, you’d never want to stand on these planets, even if you could: They are horribly deadly environments. However, they are also made of gas, hence their title gas giants. When we see pictures of gas planets, they appear round and give the impression that they have dirt and rock-like surfaces, similar to Earth. But none of these worlds have solid surfaces! In fact, once you “set foot” on these planets, you’d simply fall, or float inward towards their central cores, inevitably falling to your wild death. #2 The Sun Truly IS the Solar System Yes, we all know from grade school that everything orbits around our Sun. But, did you know that the Sun accounts for over 99% of our solar system’s entire mass? Basically, mass is simply how much stuff something is made of. In other words, all planets, asteroids, comets, and everything else are less than 1% of the solar system! #3 Saturn Isn’t the Only Planet With Rings Indeed, Saturn’s rings make it the most famous of all planet. But did you know other planets have rings too? In fact, all four giant gas planets in our outer solar system have ring systems. In other words, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Clearly, Saturn’s rings are by far the largest. And, other planet’s rings can be extremely faint, even impossible to spot with backyard telescopes. In fact, humans did not know other ringed planets existed until the 1970s. #4 The Biggest Planets Are Not Necessarily the Slowest As humans, we often associate larger size with slower speed. Sure, this may be true for humans in a foot race. However, planets don’t abide by such laws. Jupiter, our most giant planet, spins around its axis in less than half of the time Earth takes. In other words, a single day on Jupiter is only 10 hours. Plus, Saturn’s day is only 11 hours, and Neptune’s only 16. However, more minor planets like Venus have days lasting over 5,000 hours. Bad news for Monday. #5 Our Solar System Is Surrounded by an Ice Doughnut As mentioned above, the Oort Cloud is a sphere. However, a doughnut-shaped region of icy objects also surrounds the solar system, known as the Kuiper Belt. Think of this flattened region as an icy belt surrounding the solar system. Full of trillions of icy objects, like the Oort Cloud, the Kuiper Belt is also quite distant. In fact, the Kuiper Belt begins around 2.7 billion miles from the Sun. Not to mention, the KB contains planets, including the well-known former planet, Pluto. Finally, making history in 2015, NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft reached Pluto. In turn, the Kuiper Belt became the first manmade object to do so. #6 Our Solar System Exists In a Theoretical Ice Shell Far beyond Neptune, or even Pluto, a hypothetical frozen sphere exists, known as the Oort Cloud. Named after its predictor, Jan Oort, the chilly sphere is thought to contain trillions of icy objects. Some objects may be large building-sized comets or tiny ice pebbles. But, if we think the Oort Cloud is there, why haven’t we seen it? Simply put, the Oort Cloud likely begins around 464 billion miles from the Sun. Even our farthest spacecraft, Voyager I, has only traveled 12 billion miles since 1977. Therefore, making it to the Oort Cloud won’t happen any time soon. #7 Saturn Could Float In a Bathtub Yes, ringed planet Saturn has a remarkably low density. In fact, the planet’s density is similar to gasoline or lighter woods. But, its possible floating abilities simply mean its density is lower than water. Nevertheless, for a massive planet, this empty density is still quite surprising. At last, finding a bathtub to test this hypothesis may be an issue. Saturn is over 70,000 miles wide. #8 Earth Is Not Round Firstly, we hope you now understand, Earth is not flat. However, most of us may not know it’s also not technically round. Actually, Earth is considered an oblate spheroid. Simply put, it’s fatter in the middle and more slender at its North and South poles. Basically, it looks like giant hands smashed it from the top and bottom. Plus, more recent surveys also indicate indenting by the South Pole and some inflations by the North Pole. Finally, tall mountain ranges and low valleys only help to give Earth anything but a round shape. #9 The World Is Currently Searching For a New Ninth Planet in Our Solar System Obviously, poor tiny Pluto was bumped down to a dwarf planet. However, a search for a yet-to-be-discovered ninth planet is happening right now. In fact, NASA has even enlisted the general public’s help in the search. Based purely on mathematical predictions and odd orbits of distant objects, a ninth planet has been theorized. Thought to be around 10 times Earth’s mass and orbiting beyond Neptune, the mysterious planet is among astronomy’s biggest focuses. #10 If Jupiter Were Around 80 Times Bigger, It Might Have Been a Star Jupiter is truly gigantic. We know this. But, did you know, being only 80 times larger could have turned our largest planet into another Sun? Indeed, at such a behemoth size, nuclear fusion may have kicked off inside of Jupiter. And, this is the same nuclear-energy-making process occurring in our Sun’s and all stars’ core. Fortunately, we’ve dodged a bullet, as two Suns would …

"Origins" by Neil deGrasse Tyson Book Review.

Astronomy

Neil deGrasse Tyson “Origins” Book Review

This is a review of the book Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution by Neil deGrasse. This book covers the entire universe in a few hundred pages. If you want to get a review of this book, then you’ve come to the right place. Keep reading! “Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution” by Neil deGrasse Title: Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution Author: Neil deGrasse Tyson / Donald Goldsmith Subject(s): Astronomy, Physics, Cosmology, Anthropology Skill level: Advanced Published: September 2, 2014, Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc. Reasons to read: An interesting attempt to cover the entire universe in a few hundred pages. “Origins” Review Tyson and astronomy writer Donald Goldsmith tackle the king of all subjects: our universe. Like most cosmology reads, Tyson and Goldsmith set out on a voyage to explore our universe’s past, present, and future. You encounter seemingly everything on your journey, from the big bang to black holes, galaxies, to exoplanets. Furthermore, your explorations will reveal and dive into some of today’s most fascinating and yet unsolved mysteries in space. Sparing no detail, Tyson and Goldsmith have literally jammed 14 billion years into a single 300-page read. Tyson’s Delivery Firstly, as any Carl Sagan fan will attest, Neil deGrasse Tyson has all but officially taken the baton as this generation’s face of pop-sci. As a result, Tyson’s Sagan-like delivery paints some of the most vivid explanations of our universe. Almost reminiscent of the more philosophical hybrid physicists of ancient Greece. Especially given that cosmology is completely mind-bending to even the most brilliant minds, clear-cut and digestible explanations are crucial. Frankly, most of us, myself included, have cracked open a new book, only to have our thrills soon shattered by a lack of understanding. Certainly, this is a common risk in astronomy and physics literature. However, I will end this by acknowledging that physicists and works pull this off much more successfully than Tyson. For instance, if you read our review on Brian Greene’s “Fabric of the Cosmos,” you will understand. Be Prepared Despite Tyson’s notable wordsmith capabilities (see the previous section), astronomy subjects even he or Sagan can completely simplify. After all, were that the case, even children would have a rather thorough understanding of our universe, no? That said, some sections and chapters of Origins became drastically harder to stay engaged with. However, this was not a lack of great writing and subject matter. It simply reflects the overwhelming nature of deep space sciences. Personally, I would have enjoyed these sections being more slightly broken up or modified to give a slightly higher view. Origins begins similar to an episode of Cosmos, in which even non-science-loving folks can quickly adapt and enjoy. Yet, midway, it suddenly begins reading much more like Hawking’s A Brief History of Time. In other words, it takes a very rigid turn from rather basic to quite advanced reading. Cardinal Rules, Broken Firstly, this is, and will always be, subjective observation of pure opinion. Then again, this is a review, after all. But Tyson, like so many other wonderful science authors, repeatedly breaks a pop-sci golden rule throughout Origins. Divine creation versus evolution. Again, I acknowledge that this is in the eye of the beholder. However, truthfully, I make this observation not based on religious biases. Rather, the mere fact that such subjects are avoidable. This is the analog of approaching a complete stranger and unsolicitedly showering them in your political opinions to the literary world. I suppose the subject could theoretically be gently delivered. Although, I still strongly believe it can be avoided entirely, yet easily inferred. Once again, I will point out Brian Greene’s extraordinary ability to do so. While not a great deal to everyone, I found this to make Tyson come across as highly arrogant and not tactfully or diplomatically, as he is one to do. Forward-Thinking For any science reader similar to me, you enjoy the thrill of the unknown. Indeed, my love of astronomy stems primarily from my realization that I will simply never fully understand it. Tyson and Goldsmith satisfy this itch beautifully during the latter half of their book. Then, from advances in exoplanet spotting to possibilities of life’s beginnings and ends, the book becomes downright baffling. Infamously, Tyson can create mystifying excitement better than most in modern physics. Origins is no slouch when it comes to such thrills. Despite being a surprisingly challenging read, Origins: Fourteen Billion Years of Cosmic Evolution deserves a spot on even beginning astronomers’ bookshelves. About Neil DeGrasse Tyson Born in the Bronx, New York, Neil deGrasse Tyson was the second of three children. At age nine, Tyson fell head over heels for astronomy while visiting New York’s Hayden Planetarium. Ultimately, he would graduate from Bronx High School of Science, go on to receive a bachelor of physics from Harvard University and his Ph.D. in astrophysics from Columbia University. Tyson has lived a fruitful career that seemed to expand as rapidly as the very universe he so adores. From being appointed to head space future committees at the White House to hosting a litany of television documentaries and series, like Nova’s Origins, Tyson is ubiquitous in modern science. Perhaps, most notably, in 2014, Tyson revived childhood idol Carl Sagan’s popular Cosmos: A Personal Voyage television series under the updated moniker Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey. Filling the legendary shoes, Tyson has since picked up the astronomy baton since Sagan’s passing in the late 1990s. Indeed, Tyson serves as arguably the most famous pop-science advocate, a highly successful author, television personality, and more. Most serendipitously, Tyson was appointed Director of Hayden Planetarium in 1996, the very place in which he first found his passion for the universe. In fact, he remains director to this very day.

Astronomy

10 Fascinating Facts About the Particle Era

These are 10 fascinating facts about the Particle Era. From 1 million miles in 1 second to the stuff we’re made of. If you want to learn the best Particle Era facts, this is the article for you. Let’s jump right in! #1 A Rapid Growth Spurt Previously, in other epochs, the universe was microscopic. In fact, epochs like the Planck Era saw a universe that was smaller than a single atom. But, suddenly, in the Particle Era, the universe expands to more than 100-million-miles in diameter. Not to mention, this expanse took place in under one second. #2 A Lot Has Happened in a Short Time As noted above (see #1), a tremendous amount of change has occurred within the universe. Furthermore, this amazing change has happened in mere fractions of a single sentence. Rapid inflation, matter creation, wild temperature fluctuations. And, all of this within a mere fraction of time since the big bang. #3 Relatively “Cool” Outside Today During these early time, in the universe’s infancy, things were extreme. In fact, temperatures during the Particle Era were considered drastically “cooler.” Yet, “cool,” simply meant a staggering 18-trillion degrees Fahrenheit. #4 A World of Quarks and Antiquarks During the Particle Era, matter had not yet begun. No protons, neutrons, nor a single electron had been born. However, during this odd epoch, the universe was filled with quarks and antiquarks. Quarks serve as foundational particles, making up protons and neutrons. However, when the Particle Era began, these particles were still unable to “stick” together. Hence, an endless sea of quark soup! #5 The Most Legendary War in History During the Particle Era, the universe begins pumping out equal amounts of matter and antimatter. Antimatter is identical to its matter counterpart but with an opposite charge—for instance, quarks and antiquarks. However, when the two particles come in contact, they instantly annihilate each other. All that is left is pure energy in the form of gamma rays. #6 Nuclear Strong Force Takes Hold Finally, all four fundamental forces were separate and unique during the Particle Era. Plus, the universe had cooled enough for the strong nuclear force to take effect. As the name denotes, this strongest of the forces firmly binds particles together, allowing nuclei to be created. Ultimately, this is the first time the universe saw formal nuclei. Finally, matter! #7 We Could Have Been Pure Energy As mentioned previously, when matter and antimatter collide, they destroy each other, leaving only pure energy behind. Therefore, had the universe permanently continued creating equal amounts of both matter and antimatter particles, the universe would have been pure energy. Essentially, the universe would have remained a larger version of the big bang aftermath. #8 Nothing Could Have Never Existed Technically, had matter not won the legendary matter-antimatter battle, we would have never existed. Indeed, the two particles would have continuously destroyed each other. Thus, disallowing any matter to exist. No planets, stars, galaxies, or anything else. After all, everything we know is made of matter. #9 We Are All Here Because of the Particle Era Matter comprises 100% of human beings. You, your family, your friends, pets, and everybody else are made of it. Therefore, the matter-antimatter battle during the Particle Era ultimately created… us. Basically, an event that lasted less than one millisecond gave way to everything we know in our existence. Mind blown? #10 One of the Universe’s Greatest Mysteries Somehow, in a seemingly dead-even match-up, matter won out over antimatter. Plus, the entire war took place in less than one second during the Particle Era. However, nobody has a clue how or why matter won. For all we know, antimatter could have just as easily won. Fortunately, matter won, allowing life and everything we know to occur. Yet, this remains one of astronomy’s greatest unsolved mysteries.

10 Fascinating Facts About he James Webb Space Telescope.

Astronomy

10 Fascinating Facts About the James Webb Space Telescope

These are 10 fascinating facts about the James Webb Space Telescope. From the size of a tennis court to a gold golf ball. So if you want to learn the top 10 James Webb Space Telescope facts, then you’re in the right place. Let’s get started! 10 James Webb Space Telescope Facts Launched in October 2018, the James Webb Space Telescope took over Hubble as mankind’s next-generation eyes into the universe. Using state-of-the-art instruments and doubling Hubble’s size, James Webb will unlock some of our universe’s biggest secrets. Without further ado, here are the top 10 amazing James Webb Space Telescope facts: #1 The Biggest Space Telescope in History Launching in 1990, Hubble Space Telescope was the largest space telescope in history. However, James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) took over this record in 2018. At the size of a typical school bus, Hubble will be dwarfed by JWST’s tennis court size. Not to mention, JWST’s 21.3-foot-wide primary mirror will collect tremendously higher amounts of light than Hubble’s 7.9-foot primary mirror. #2 A Golf-Ball-Sized Amount of Gold Coats Jwst’s Mirrors JWST will observe some of the universe’s most distant objects. As a result, in its more than 13-billion-mile journey, object’s light becomes heavily shifted toward the red side of the electromagnetic spectrum. Therefore, JWST’s primary mirrors are plated in 24-karat gold. Simply put, gold reflects red light better than nearly any other metal. Ultimately, this allows JWST’s mirrors to be 98% reflective, compared to the typical 85% reflectiveness of standard mirrors. Fun fact: Gold layers plating the scope’s mirrors are only 1,000 atoms thick. Indeed, only a golf-ball-sized amount of gold was used to coat the entire 21-foot-wide mirror. #3 Unlike Hubble, JWST Will Not Be Serviceable During Its Mission In order to either upgrade or repair Hubble throughout its nearly 20-year stint, several manned missions visited the telescope in space to carry out operations. However, Hubble orbits Earth at a measly 340 miles away. In comparison, JWST will orbit at just under 1 million miles out (940,000). As a result, no missions are currently planned to perform any service or repair operations on the telescope. Fun fact: JWST will be four times farther from Earth than our Moon! #4 JWST Can Clearly See a Single Penny 24 Miles Away Sharpness of vision, or angular resolution, is everything for space telescopes. And, JWST is no slouch in that department. In fact, the telescope could clearly see a US penny from around 24 miles away. Put another way, JWST could clearly resolve a football from around 340 miles away. #5 JWST Will Be Able To Detect Water on Exoplanets Today, we discover planets orbiting other stars by monitoring slight dips in the star’s light as the planets pass in front of them. Furthermore, we can read unique signatures in the light, telling us a planet’s chemical composition. Finally, the strongest and most readable signatures occur within the infrared spectrum. Therefore, JWST’s state-of-the-art infrared instruments will help us locate new planets and accurately identify the presence of important things, like water. #6 JWST Will Spot the First Light Ever Created in the Universe Among its most important goals, JWST will see the light from the universe’s first stars and galaxies. First of all, let’s think about that… The FIRST LIGHT from the FIRST STARS that EVER existed in our universe! That is truly amazing. Ultimately, these are the stars that made it possible for Earth and us to even be here right now. However, the farther away an object is, the faster it’s moving away from us. Plus, the longer light has to travel, the more it gets stretched toward the infrared side of the spectrum. In astronomy, this is referred to as redshifting. Hence, JWST’s powerful state-of-the-art infrared instruments. Even though previous telescopes have been seen further back in time, JWST will reveal previously invisible objects to humans. #7 JWST Will Be Folded up on Its Rocket and Expand to Its Full Size in Space JWST’s larger size makes the telescope a rather bulky payload to launch into space. Therefore, during launch, JWST will be folded, like origami, allowing it to fit into its compact space. Finally, once in space, the large telescope will unfold, expanding to its full size. #8 One Side of the Telescope Is Hotter Than Death Valley, the Other Side Is Colder Than Antarctica First, the side of JWST that will always face the Sun will constantly sit at a scorching 185º F. In other words, one side of JWST will always be hotter than Death Valley. However, the other side, containing the mirrors and instruments, will constantly sit at a frigid -388º F. In other words, this side will always remain twice as cold as Antarctica. #9 JWST’s Science Instruments Will Function at Close To Absolute Zero Simply put, the colder the temperature, the fewer atoms move. Ultimately, at absolute zero, the coldest possible temperature (-459º F), atoms essentially stop moving altogether. Now, JWST observes light in the infrared spectrum. However, JWST itself emits infrared heat, which can interfere with precious data. As a result, the high-tech instruments aboard JWST will operate at nearly absolute zero to decipher data accurately. In fact, the space telescope’s primary operating temperature is only 50 degrees above absolute zero. #10 JWST Launches Far, Far Away From Home Launching in an Ariane 5 rocket, provided by Europe, JWST will blast off from a European Spaceport near French Guiana in South America. Plus, this launch location happens to be very close to the Earth’s equator. Simply put, the Earth spins considerably faster toward the equator. Ultimately, this increased spin will provide an additional, fuel-free boost for the Ariane 5 rocket carrying the telescope. The world’s most reliable launch rocket and a free booster, not bad.

Astronomy

Christophe Galfard “The Universe in Your Hand” Review

This is a review of the book The Universe in Your Hand – A Journey Through Space, Time, and Beyond by Christophe Galfard. This book gives you an overview of the entire universe. If you want a review of this book, you’ve come to the right place. Let’s jump right in! “The Universe in Your Hand – A Journey Through Space, Time, and Beyond” by Christophe Galfard Title: The Universe in Your Hand – A Journey Through Space, Time, and Beyond Author: Christophe Galfard Subject(s): Astronomy, Physics, Cosmology Skill level: Intermediate Published: August 27, 2015, Pan MacMillan Reasons to read: No greater or more unique overview of the entire universe and cosmology. “The Universe in Your Hand” Review The Universe in Your Hand: A Journey Through Space, Time, and Beyond attempts precisely what the book’s title states. Through a series of hypothetical situations, readers go on a mental journey of our cosmos through the eyes and mind of an unnamed main character. Beginning with local and more familiar subject matters, you explore our solar system, planets, and Sun. Gradually, you venture further out into the deep cosmos, experiencing other stars, distant galaxies, and beyond. Ultimately, your journey culminates in deep explorations of great scientific mysteries like black holes, time, dark matter and energy, and even the bazaar submicroscopic quantum world. Actual Simple Explanations Too often, astronomy books take on wildly fascinating topics, only to fall short through poor explanation, too much explanation, or not enough at all. Alternatively, despite his extensive star-studded career and vast knowledge of astrophysics, Christophe Galfard truly shines in this regard. Particularly, Galfard’s simplified synopses of all but unknown subjects like dark matter, dark energy, the very early universe, and quantum mechanics are surprisingly easy to digest. Not to mention, he leaves you with a genuine understanding of things. He does not simply overload you with knowledge to the point of needing an advanced physics degree. Brilliant Comparisons Galfard’s ability to bring complex subjects down to Earth through real-world comparisons and situations makes this book a home run for most ages and skill levels. Above all, quantum mechanics. After all, even legendary theoretical physicist Richard Feynman once said, “I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics.” Yet, Galfard tees it up for even novices to at least comprehend and explore one of modern science’s most fascinating worlds. Most authors try to prevent one from enjoying or even finishing a book on such a topic. Using common, everyday items that anyone can easily relate to, Galfard brings previously unseen cosmic wonders to life. Now complex and unknown things become burned into your mind. From a snarky robotic friend to gigantic musical strings, the universe becomes a memorable Alice in Wonderland-style journey. A Plotline… in Non-Fiction? Finally, Galfard uses an actual plot in an unusual twist to guide his reader through the entire universe. Not only is it atypical, but it is also no easy task. Most often, astronomy and physics books stick to pure facts and figures in an effort to fit vast amounts of the necessary information into a single book. Ultimately, while understandable and honorable, it can prove quite exhausting. However, Christophe Galfard not only succeeds but enhances his writing in doing so. Indeed, from vivid descriptions that illuminate your learning experience to fun, light-hearted interjections about a quirky great aunt, Galfard actually personifies astrophysics. Plus, like the rest of the book, the plot proves engaging and easy to follow. In fact, it ultimately helps you more easily digest large amounts of information. Regardless of your skill level in astronomy and physics, this book is a must-have for any bookshelf. Novices will learn deeply about our beautiful universe. Not to mention, enthusiasts and beyond will still pick up fun new facts or simply enjoy a well-executed and exciting ride through the cosmos. About Christophe Galfard Dr. Christophe Galfard earned his Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics from Cambridge University in England. It was there that he studied under world-famous physicist Stephen Hawking. In fact, Galfard would go on to study cosmology and black holes with Hawking for several years. Today, Galfard travels the world, sharing his vast knowledge and passion for astronomy through public speaking, live shows, and books.

Astronomy

Living On Venus (What Would Life Be on Venus?)

This is about how it would be to live on the planet Venus. How about the Sun only rises once every 177 Earth days? So if you want to know how life on Venus might be, this article is for you. Let’s jump right in! What Would It Be Like To Live on Venus? As the hottest planet in our solar system, full of dangerous and extreme environments, Venus is not a place that any Human would ever want to visit. But, for now, let’s look past the dangers and assume that we are equipped with the necessary technology to travel to our twin neighbor planet. What would it be like to live on Venus? Let’s find out! Venus – Quick Facts Distance from Sun: 67 million miles Text Message to Earth: Takes about 6 min. Mass: 80% of Earth Width: 95% of Earth Gravity: 90% of Earth Length of Day: 5,832 hours (243 x 1 Earth Day) Length of Year: 224 days (61% of 1 Earth year) Average Temp: 867º F Pressure: 92 x Earth Moons: 0 Rings: No Your Typical Day on Venus When you arrive on Venus, you’ll want to get an excellent night’s sleep. Your new planet’s day lasts just under 6,000 hours. If you got your full eight hours of sleep, you would wake up only 0.1% of the way through the same day you went to sleep on. If you are hoping to catch a Venusian sunrise, you will need to plan very carefully. On this new planet, the Sun only rises once every 177 Earth days. In other words, you will only see two sunrises during your entire year. If you miss the sunrise, do not worry, your new atmosphere will all but cancel the Sun out anyways (explained below). You will notice instantly that your new home is rotating in the opposite direction of most other planets. We call this retrograde rotation. The Sun now rises in the West and sets in the East; that will take some time getting used to. As you explore your new home, you will see that the majority of the terrain consists of vast, smooth plains. But, if you roam around enough, you could stumble across massive active volcanoes, so be cautious. Your eyes will need to adjust to your daytime sky, which is now a red-orange color. Again, this is due to your extremely thick atmosphere that is explained in your weather forecast below. Your atmosphere is so dense that you feel a strong resistance like being underwater as you move your arms and legs. Speaking of underwater, the Venusian air pressure is 92 times that of Earth, which would feel like being over half a mile deep in an ocean. Your Typical Night on Venus If you are a star-gazer, you may be quite disappointed in your new planet. Because of your hazy skies, your new night sky appears completely black. Even on a “clear” Venusian night, you could not see a single star if you tried. Not to mention, you have no Moons to call your own. This will feel rather ironic since Venus is always one of the brightest objects in the Earth’s night and morning skies. Congratulations, you officially have a very lifeless night sky now. Your Typical Year on Venus: Your new calendar year lasts for 224 Earth days, not all too different from your previous planet. However, this officially makes your Venus day slightly longer than your Venus year, so take extra precautions when adding events to your calendar. If you were 50 years old when you left Earth, you are now 82 years old on Venus. So, you may need to text your friends and family to tell them that your birthday has officially changed. If they don’t reply quickly, don’t be sad, it can now take up to 15 minutes for your text message or email to reach planet Earth. This is because you are now on the other side of the Sun and 162 million miles from your former home. On the plus side, your new gravity is similar to Earth, so your jump, your weight, and your ability to lift things will stay almost identical. Your Local Weather Forecast Spoiler alert: You now live on the hottest planet in the solar system. This is partially because you are rather close to the Sun, at 67 million miles. Though, it’s mainly due to your new atmosphere. Your planet is covered in extremely thick, dense clouds of carbon dioxide. This gas, as we know it on Earth, causes a Greenhouse Effect. The heat from the nearby Sun enters your planet, but the carbon dioxide keeps it trapped. Essentially, your forecast always calls for heat. A constant average of 870º Fahrenheit, to be exact. In other words, your new planet is constantly hot enough to melt lead. Since you do have an atmosphere, you can, and often do, have severe rainstorms. The problem is that your high temperatures melt all raindrops before they can even hit the ground. Even on a storm-free day, your thick, hazy atmosphere makes the Sun a blurred-out, pale dot behind heavy cloud cover. Your daytime skies are forever red-orange colored from the way that your atmosphere’s carbon dioxide scatters incoming sunlight. For Sale! If bone-dry and scorching climates, starless night skies, volcanic terrains, and absurdly long days are what you’re in the market for, move to Venus. You’ll never need an umbrella, and you can always rest assured your forecast will be somewhere in the 800’s. Since Humans struggle with the heat during hot Earth summer days, you may want to do a little more thinking before signing your new lease. See What Life Would Be Like on Another Plant Jupiter Mars Mercury Moon Neptune Saturn Sun Uranus

Astronomy

Living On Uranus (What Would Life Be on Uranus?)

This is about how it would be to live on the planet Uranus. How about storms of shimmering diamonds rain down on your house? So if you want to know how life on Uranus might be, this article is for you. Let’s get right into it! What Would It Be Like To Live on Uranus? So, you have selected Uranus as your new home? Well, before you pack up and voyage to the planet, there are many essential things you need to know. While the inner planets are fiery worlds of molten rock, the outer planets are cold and desolate places. Mysterious and gigantic, Uranus sits far from the Sun as a frozen ball of deadly gases. Of course, living in such environments would require tremendously advanced technology. But, let’s put that thought aside, blast off to the outer solar system, and find out what living on Uranus would be like. Let’s get started! Uranus – Quick Facts Distance from Sun: 1.8 billion miles Text Message to Earth: Takes about 2.7 hrs. Mass: 15 x Earth Width: 4 x Earth Gravity: 90% of Earth Length of Day: 17 hours (46% of 1 Earth Day) Length of Year: 30,687 days (84 x 1 Earth year) Average Temperature: -320º F Pressure: Unknown Moons: 27 known Rings: Yes Scouting Your New Neighborhood Similar to the other gas giants we have explored so far, Uranus has no solid surface. Instead, ammonia, methane, and water ices comprise most of Uranus. Plus, the planet’s surface layers are extremely frigid. Internal temperatures on Uranus can rocket to a brutal 8,500º F. Therefore, living on Uranus will be limited to the outer cloud top layers. Living in the outer cloud layers in a protective bubble-like home will work best. Saturn and Jupiter both received this same advice. Your Typical Day on Uranus Entirely flipped on its side, Uranus sits at a near-90º tilt. Only once you observed other planets would you notice this awkward shift. Studied for decades, the cause of your new planet’s tilt is still a mystery. Scientists believe it is the result of a massive cosmic collision. Plus, Moons form after planets form. We know this now. So, your Moons orbiting on the same tilted plane tells us the collision occurred during the early solar system when your planet was forming. Next, the moment you arrive on the third biggest planet, you immediately notice the temperature. Maintaining a constant chilling -320º F, the sub-arctic climate on Uranus is hard to ignore. The further a planet is from the Sun, the colder its temperatures. Yet, Uranus is colder than the more distant neighbor, Neptune. How can this be? Crediting icy temperatures to unknown internal processes, your new planet is the coldest in the solar system. So, putting on the best parka money can buy, you decide to head out and explore. Similar to Earth, your new day lasts for 17 hours, not too shabby. Plus, to your surprise, you notice blue skies, just like home sweet home. Yet, blue skies on Uranus differ dramatically from Earth. Deadly abundances of methane gas are now the cause of your world’s blue skies. To your dismay, your new home appears bleak and desolate. Venturing out to explore, vacant, smooth, blue horizons surround you as far as the eye can see. Living on Uranus is not conducive to sightseeing. However, at 100,000 miles around, your home is the third largest planet and much too big to explore anyhow. Your Typical Night on Uranus Living on Uranus does have its perks, despite the barren landscape. Peering through the gaseous haze, you become awe-inspired by 27 Moons. Small and irregularly shaped, your collection of Moons are much different than your previous Earth-Moon. Yet, they dance around your planet like mesmerizing ice sculptures. Surprisingly, your new world has a ring system. Faint and elegant, Uranus is surrounded by 13 beautiful rings. Boulder-sized clumps of dust comprise Uranus’ rings, unlike Saturn’s bright ice pebble rings. Yet, appearing faint deep blue, and red, your new rings are simply stunning. Finally, Earth is observable from your new home, should you become homesick. Of course, viewing your former home requires a powerful telescope. Appearing as a pale dot, you gaze beyond the methane atmosphere at your prior homeland. Now, temperatures become simply too much, and you head inside for the evening. Your Typical Year on Uranus Opposite of your short days, living on Uranus brings 31,000-day-long years. In other words, your new year lasts for 84 Earth years. Not to mention, your extreme tilt creates enduring, long seasons. In fact, only two seasons occur on Uranus, summer, and winter. First, extreme tilting causes your north pole to face the Sun for half of your year. In other words, summer drags on slowly, seeing the Sun creep across the sky for 42 years. Finally, skipping what would have been your NFL season, winter instantly sets in. But, unlike Earth’s winter, Uranus now sits in total darkness for 42 years. Hope you do not like football, autumn leaves, or warm days. Gravity hardly changes living on Uranus. Actually, jumping, lifting, and body weight are slightly more favorable, if anything. Plus, in your terribly long year, your first birthday has not yet occurred. Your friends will be feeding you a birthday cake with a single candle in your highchair in no time. But, when birthday party invitees are no-shows, don’t hold it against them. After all, their cancellation text messages take nearly three hours to arrive. Your Local Weather Forecast Weather forecasts living on Uranus are predictable and bleak. Cold, dark, and windy, that’s about it. Blowing at a speedy 560 miles per hour, gusts of wind are sure to knock you down. Heavy boots of iron could do the trick. Between day and night, temperatures remain a constant -320º. Nearly 2 billion from the Sun, very little light hits your home, even during the 42 year summers. Murky methane and ammonia atmospheres certainly do not help this. Precipitation does occur since you still have an atmosphere, but much differently. Methane in your world chemically changes to carbon. Under your planet’s extreme pressures, …

Astronomy

Living On the Sun (What Would Life Be on the Sun?)

This is about how it would be to live on the Sun. How about a homeland that burns its nuclear fuel until it runs out and then violently collapses? So if you want to know how life on Sun might be, this article is for you. Let’s get started! What Would It Be Like To Live on the Sun? So, you have decided to live in the solar system’s most extreme environment? Well, what would it be like living on the Sun? Firstly, no humans could ever inhabit the Sun. It is a star. Scalding temperatures, nuclear processes, and unexpected lethal bursts make the Sun a deadly world. Yet, it would be unjust to not cover our cosmic mother in our guide to life beyond Earth. Therefore, use your imagination to pretend that we now have remarkable technologies. You have acquired tools to help you withstand unbelievable radiation and heat. A reinforced, floating dome-like structure will serve as your new house and keep you free of the many dangers. Without further ado, pack your bags, load the trucks, let’s find out what it would be like, living on the Sun: Sun – Quick Facts Distance from Sun: 0 miles Text Message to Earth: Takes about 8 min. Mass: 330,000 x Earth Width: 109 x Earth Gravity: Over 300% of Earth Length of Day: n/a Length of Year: n/a Average Temperature: 9,938º F Pressure: Unknown Moons: 0 Rings: 0 Charming Historical Value For thousands of years, ancient civilizations worshiped your new homeland. Constructing temples, monuments, art, and more, the Sun has been a god-like figure in human life history. Not to mention, ancient and modern calendar systems alike are all based on your newly-chosen home. Plants, animals, foods, and anything else in human life all exist courtesy of the Sun. Plus, even on cloudy days, human beings see and feel your home every day of their lives. Even people without eyesight feel its motherly warmth on their bodies. Your new home is easily the single most iconic piece of astronomical history. If the solar system were the United States, you have selected to live in colonial Williamsburg. Scouting Your New Neighborhood Deciding where you will be living on the Sun is simple: really hot, or extremely hot? Dangerous or impossibly dangerous? Three main regions make up your home: Interior Atmosphere Surface Sun’s Interior First, the interior is made of the core, radiative zone, and convective zone. Simply by the oven-like names, we can infer that the interior is not a desirable living space. Plus, the core temperature rings in around 27 million degrees. In conditions, these extreme elements are crushed into heavier elements via nuclear fusion. This process is the lifeblood of your new home. It’s the fuel that keeps the Sun alive. But, you do not want to be anywhere remotely near this process. Trust us. Sun’s Atmosphere Alternatively, the Sun’s atmosphere has several layers: Chromosphere Photosphere Corona. Named after the Greek word chroma, meaning “color,” the chromosphere is the first layer. The chromosphere gives off a red hue where the scorching-hot hydrogen emerges from the Sun’s interior. Next comes a small zone separating the lower and upper atmosphere, the photosphere. Greek for “light sphere,” the photosphere is where the Sun’s powerful energy radiates as visible light. Surprisingly, this layer is the “mild” region at a chilly 9,900º F. Finally, the temperature leaps rapidly to a few million degrees to form the corona, Greek for “crown.” This thickest atmospheric layer is where the Sun’s solar wind is generated. But, this is not typical wind. Instead, it is a stream of plasma and radiation that flows across the entire solar system. After examining these luxurious locales, you decide the photosphere is your dreamland. Pack your bags and load the truck. Your Typical Day, Night, and Year on the Sun Now, you live on the actual object that all planets orbit. Therefore, your home itself is the cause of days, nights, and years in the solar system. In other words, you now live on the day, you live on the night, and you live on a year. And, other than some of your layers and regions rotating, your home has no calendar of any kind. Instead, your new homeland simply burns its nuclear fuel until it runs out. Yes, it does have an expiration date, but you still have around 5 billion years left. Our Sun is called a main-sequence star. Basically, it’s middle-aged, still in its prime. But, more on that later. Let’s get out and do some sight-seeing: Exploring Features and Phenomenon of the Sun Immediately, you notice darker portions randomly appearing right in your own photosphere. These are sunspots. At nearly 3,000 degrees cooler than their surroundings, sunspots can be a great place to take a break and chill out. Plus, they can be 31,000 miles wide, so fitting friends and family should not be an issue. Next, you suddenly notice a gigantic tentacle extending out from your home region. Extending out for hundreds of thousands of miles, you have just witnessed your first solar prominence. However, keep your distance, as it is made of electrically charged hydrogen and plasma. Yikes! Finally, you need to rush back to your safe home dome. Your local news has just informed you that a coronal mass ejection is expected tonight. Randomly, your new home gathers massive amounts of pent-up energy and ejects it in a devastating explosion. Magnetically- and electrically-charged material blasts outward for millions of miles. Sure, snap some breathtaking photos, but whatever you do, stay far away. These explosions are even powerful enough to damage power and communications on Earth. Planning for the Future Depending on when you make a move, living on the Sun requires long-term planning. As mentioned previously, the Sun operates purely on nuclear fuel. However, like all things, this fuel eventually expires and runs out. At this point, your precious home is no longer safe. In fact, it will self-destruct and violently collapse. Aside from destroying your resale value, everything around you will also evaporate. Similar to all stars of this size, the Sun’s fuel will run out. It will expand to be several times its current size as …